Stomach images

Location of stomach
Greater Omentum
Lesser Omentum
Muscles of stomach

GI MCQ

GI System

Mtin

1. Enlist the name of accessory organ of GI system

2. All are the layer of teeth except—

Pulp

Dentin

Enamel

Sementam

3. Write the name of curvetature of stomach

4. Write the name of sphincter present in stomach?

5. Which is not the layer of GI tract?

Submucosa

Frenelum

Mucosa

Serosa

6. Write the name of papille present on tongue

1

2

3

4 denotes which taste of tongue

7. All are the function of GI System except—

Digestion

Ingestion

Excreation

Purification

8. Write the name of cavities present in human being?

9. How many number of facial bone in skull?

10. Which is not paired bobe?

Zygomatic bone

Mandible

Maxilla

Palatine bone

11. All are the salivary gland except—

Parotid gland

Gluteal gland

Submandibular gland

Sublingual gland

12. Which salivary gland present below to tongue—

Parotid gland

Gluteal gland

Submandibular gland

Sublingual gland

13. Saliva consist of water in percentage—

95

98

100

90

14. what is the length of small & large intestine?

20 ft(5 mt)

5 ft (1.5 mt)

Difference between Small and large intestine

Difference between Small and large intestine--

The length of small intestine is 6mt (20 feet/610 cm) but small in width, while large intestine having 1.5 mt(5 ft) but width is more. The small intestine is the longest part of the digestive system.

Characterstics of Research Tool

                               CHARECTERISTICS OF RESEARCH TOOL

An ideal measuring instrument is one which results in measures that are relevant, accurate objective, sensitive and efficient. Measures which are physical or physiological have a higher chance of success in attaining these goals than measures that are psychological and behavioural. A number of techniques have been developed to evaluate the quality of the measuring tool to minimize error.

VALIDITY:

Refer to the degree to which the tool measures, what it is intended to measure. It refer to whether the instrument or scale quantifying what its claims to. E.g. weight scale measures the body weight; a tool which is valid for measure, need not be valid for another e.g. in the case of weight scale, it is not valid to measure temperature.

Major types of validity:

Different aspects or facets of validity questions are explained by the type of validity and number of indirect and logical methods have evolved to assess validity.

Content validity:

This is concerned with the sampling adequacy of the content area being measured. It refer to the fact that the items included in the tool represent a reasonable sampling of all possible items/ behaviours that make the domain being measured.

The content area to be tested must be studied to make certain that all major aspects or subcategories are represented in correct proportion. Experts in the content area are often called upon to analyse the items see if they adequately represent not only the content universe( or domain) but also in correct proportions. They also point out errors and ambiguities in items and make recommendation for changes.

Content validity assessment also involves a more elaborate procedure by which items are developed, given to experts for judgment and determination of percentage of items for each category. Percentage of agreement between the judges is consider as the basis for inclusion or rejections of items. After item analysis content validity needs to be assessed again to determine if the correct proportion of items for each subcategories has been maintained. If the proportion has not been maintain , exchange of items and sometime additions of items are made until the content is sampled appropriately while retaining an acceptable level of reliability.

Criterion related validity:

Seeks to establish that the measures correlates to another criterion rather than to ascertain how well the tool measures the particular phenomenon. E.g. the instrument measuring anxiety sate is said to be valid if the anxiety sores correlate with the same criterion, such as , person who are known to be anxious( e.g.. student prior to a difficult examinations) would be expected to have higher score on the anxiety scale. That is, groups known to possess or not to possess the characteristics being measured would be the criterion.

Sometimes distinctions are made between two types of criterion validity , predictive and concurrent.

Predictive validity ;

It refers to the adequacy of an instrument in predicting performance or behavioural of individuals on some future criteria. E.g. how well does the admission test predict the future performance of the students . this can be got by correlating admission test scores of first year nursing students with subsequent achievement in nursing in second, third , and fourth year. Here , the predictive validity of admission test of nursing is being evaluated.

Concurrent validity:  

on the  other hand , involve concurrent (i.e. simultaneous) measurement of the of the scale being validated. the difference between predictive and concurrent validity,then,is the difference n timing of obtaining measurements  on a criterian.one of the hardest aspects of criterion related  validity is selection and measurement of criterions. It must be relevant ,possess reliability and validity and free from biases

Construct validity;

In construct validity the investigator is concerned with the questions the concept under the investigator is adequately measured? Is there a valid bases for  inferring the course? This beings when the investigator formulate hypotheses  based on theory, about characteristic of those who have high scores on a test (compare to those with low sores) the measures can be dependent variable in some hypotheses and an independent variable in others evidence of construct validity is not established with the single study.

Variables like anxiety ,creativity, job satisfaction ,attitude towards numerous phenomena ,intelligence, empathy ,dependency, power, self concept etc are all constructs this variables have been constructed from theory and empirical data(i.e. qualitative data from research).for measures of variables that are constructs ,evidence must be presented that scores represent the degree to which an individual does indeed posses  or exhibit the construct. One common approach to construct validation is “known group technique” where the group which is expected to differ on the particular attribute because of some known  characteristics are administered the test. For e.g. in validating the tool to measure fear in pregnancy of primigravida, the researcher would also administer the tool to multigravidae.  Because one would logically infer that women who have not given birth ( primi) would express more fear than multigravidae.

Reliability:

 It refer to the accuracy and consistency of a measuring tool. A measure is reliable when an individual remains nearly the same in repeated measurements. Reliability is measured by reliability coefficient and the estimation of reliability can be done statistically.

How to estimate the degree of reliability?

Coefficient of stability shows consistency of performance on test over a period of time. It is based on the correlation between performance on initial test and retest after a distinct interval. That is, it involves the repetition of the same test.

A test may be reliable even though it may not be valid.

A valid test usually reliable.

Coefficient of equivalence shows consistency of performance on different form of a test. It is based on the correlation between performance on the different form of administered at nearly the same time. That is, a second equivalent form of the test is administered .

 Coefficient of internal consistency shows consistency of performance on different parts or items of the test taken at a single setting. This coefficient is usually computed by “ split half” correlation ( e.g. sperman- brown formula), or by using kunder- Richardson formula. That is, the analysis involves  subdivision of the test into two or more equivalent fractions.

Sensitivity and appropriateness:

Sensitivity refers to the capability to detect changes or differences when they to occur. Often , multimodal measurements are made because of the variations in the sensitivity  e.g. some fear reduction research show that changes in subjective feelings are not necessarily accompanied by changes in elevated heart rate. Heart rate, therefore, may not be sensitive enough to demonstrate change as a result of some interventions- particularly if it is observed immediately after administrations of the experimental variable. Therefore, it is necessary to include different to estimate fear.

Appropriateness refer to  whether or not the measure can be used for a particular target population. It also refers to the extent to which the target population can meet demands of the instrument, such as understanding and following the directions and having the physical stamina and motivation to complete the measure. If a measure is inappropriate if could measure wrongly.

Objectivity:

Objectivity means freedom from bias, a test should yields a clear scores value for each performance, the score being independent of the personal judgement of the score.

Economy:

Tests that can be given in short period of time are likely to gain the cooperation of the subject and to observer the time of those involved in test administration. The matter of expense is also a significant factor.

Relevance:

The degree to which the criteria established for selecting the item so that they conform to the aims of the measuring instrument.

Equality:

Achievement of the correct proportion among questions allotted to each of the teaching content.

Length:

The number of items in the test should depend of the content of the topic.

Practicability:

Simplicity of administration , scoring and interpretation are important factors in selecting test.

Interest:

Both the researcher and subjects should enjoy the experience of data collection. The investigator gains cooperation of subjects if responding to an instruments is interesting and enjoyable, and the measuring tool may not yield useful results if they are dull or seem silly.(foolish).

 .

Types of tool in data collection

Types of tool

Questionnaire or Interview Schedule

INTRODUCTION

Questionnaire and interviews are probably the most frequently used data collection methods in nursing research.

The questioning method for data collection is a method in which the researcher obtains her data by posing a verbal question for the respondent

One of the sources of data is subject himself or herself when the data collection procedure requires self-reporting through some form of questioning either a questionnaire or an interview schedule can be used for the same.

DEFINATION:

Questionnaire is a paper and pencil, self reporting instrument can be used to measure knowledge levels, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, ideas, feelings and perceptions, as well as gather factual information about the respondents.

Questionnaire is the most common research instrument and is comprised a series of questions that are answered by all the participants in a sample.

Interview Schedule: Interview schedule, in a sense is an oral questionnaires. Here researcher (interview\ver.) orally asks questions to the participant (or interviewee) in the study, either in face to face meeting or over the telephone/ video recording.

ELEMENTS OF A QUESTIONING METHOD

In using questioning method, there are three elements to consider:

·      Content of questioning.

·      The question which can be defined as the verbal stimulus to which the respondent will be exposed.

·      Provision for answering, which refers to the response the respondent will be expected.

1)   Content of questioning: The researcher must decide what to ask?, who are the sample?, for selecting content of questioning. It is useful to fully develop blueprint of various aspects of the situation about which question must be asked. Identification of all possible areas for questioning and proportional allocation of time must be done. Selection of content should be based not only upon researcher's knowledge of research situation but upon the literature in the problem area as well. Therefore, in developing the blueprint, literature reviewed should be both the research and non -research.

2)   The question: The heart of the questioning method and its most significant element is the question itself. For research purpose the question must be clear to the' respondent. For a clear question to serve an effective stimulus must have following characteristics:

            I.            Clarity of language: This means that the researcher' must relate the vocabulary, language, structure, conceptual level and ‘sophistication of the Information subsumed in her question to the ability and background of her respondent.

         II.            Singleness of purpose: This characteristic is intended to assure that each  question seeks one and only one piece or bit of information. A frequent error in questioning is to seek more than one piece of information. For example, researcher wants to get an opinion about quality/satisfaction of hospital care and frequency of visit to hospital. Posed correctly these are two separate questions the first dealing with quality/satisfaction of hospital care, the second question dealing with frequency of visit to hospital

.

      III.            Freedom from suggestions: There should be nothing in language of the question which suggest to the respondents that some answers are expected or some are more desirable or acceptable than others.

      IV.            Linguistic completeness and grammatical consistency: There are two different aspects to developing questions of linguistic quality-making certain that the question unit provides a complete cue to the linguistic nature of response and writing questions in such a way that the answer desired is grammatically consistent with the question.

3)   Provision for Answering

There are two major types of responses to research question. One is free-response type in which the researcher asks the questions and gives freedom to respondent to answer. The second is the structured type in which researcher both asks the questions and suggests some alternative answers. There are obvious research implications in both the types of answering the questions. The researcher has to decide according to objectives of research study.

TECHNIQUES OF QUESTIONING METHODS

                                                                                    

1.    Paper and Pencil Technique: The most familiar single research technique is questionnaire, a series of printed questions given to respondent to be answered. Either structured or unstructured questions can be used but since researcher is generally not present when the respondent completes the questionnaire, a premium is placed upon clarity and specificity. One key advantage is that researcher is able to assume that her respondent will give - free and frank responses. It can also be given to large sample.                       

2.  Face to Face Technique: In contrast to paper and pencil testing is interview in which researcher poses series of question to respondent in a face to face verbal interaction.  

TYPES AND STRUCTURE:

The design of a useful schedule normally involves extensive planning, Consultation with colleagues and experts, pretesting and revising. Some of the major considerations that to be kept in mind when constructing a questionnaire and or interview schedule are:

i) Form of Schedule

Schedules vary in extent to which they are structured. These can be structured, semi-structured, unstructured. Majority of the interview schedule and questionnaire fall in between these two extremes of rigid standardization (structured) and total absence of structure (unstructured)

ii) Form of Question

Review the forms of question which could be close-ended, open-ended and partially close-ended questions.

iii)Question Content

The content of questions will naturally be guided by the films and needs of the researcher. Direct questioning is particularly useful for obtaining information on knowledge, beliefs And  practices. In. deciding on the question content, the researcher should not lose sight of initial goals and objectives of the project, as it is not uncommon to have a schedule get out- of-hand in terms of its length, coverage and complexity.

iv) Question Wording

Number of considerations that should be borne. in mind are :

·         Clarity

·         Ability of respondents to reply

·         Bias

Handling sensitive or .personal information (will be dealt in detail in the section on writing good questions)

 v) Consideration for Responses

Few general considerations to be kept in mind are:

a)Coverage of ·alternatives.:- responses should adequately encompass all of  significant alternatives

b)   Ordering responses- There should be some underlying rational for the ordering which alternatives are presented to the respondents.

c)Response Length- The response alternatives should not be too lengthy since It IS inefficient and cumbersome for the subjects to read detailed replies.

vi) Organization

In organization of the schedule the researcher must plan on the questioning sequence (order of questions) and the schedule format.

Question Sequence (Order):

     Some thoughts should be given to the sequencing of the questions so as to arrive at an order that is psychologically meaningful to the response and encourages them to answer all questions. The order in which questions are asked affect the responses as well as the overall data collection activity. Responses given by subjects will tend to be more accurate and representative of the sample when certain principles are followed:

·Every item in a questionnaire should relate to the topic under study.

·Items should be organized into units.

·         General questions should lead to specific ones_

·         One questions should not influence the other.

·         Personal background information' such as age, educational level, marital status etc. usually included in the questionnaire either in the beginning or end.

    Schedule Format (Lay-out): The way a questionnaire/interview schedule is laid may affect response rate and the accuracy of the responses given. Formats that  are easy to fit

PARTS OF A QUESTIONNAIRE OR INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

A questionnaire or an interview schedule contain the following parts:

a)      Introduction and  Instructions:

Questionnaire/interview schedules are not complete without an introduction. Subject have the right to know the purpose of the study and why they are being questioned. Each schedule must be prefaced by some introductory comments regarding the purpose of the study. For self-administered questionnaires, it is also essential incorporate clear instructions on the schedule itself, indicating how the respondent to answer questions. Directions for completion of items should be efficient and unambiguous so that respondents understand what the researcher wants. Interview schedules require directions for the interviewer completing the· form. Confidential and anonymity should be assured.

b)     Personal data information contains items such as age, sex, education, etc.

c)      Background  data include items such as family income, father’s occupation, living environment, etc.

d)     Content  areas may cover knowledge, opinion, belief, attitude, practices, etc

e)      End with an acknowledgment for the participation, e.g. “thank you”

STEPS DEVELOPING A QUESTIONNAIRE OR INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

a)      Preliminary Decisions:

Decide on the form that the schedule will take e.g. structured, unstructured, semi -structured.

Decide on type of information that needs to be collected.

List and operationally define the variables.

Develop pattern of coding and recording.

b)      Drafting the Schedule:

Wording of each question needs to be carefully monitored.

Decide how to sequence the questions.

c)      Revising and Pretesting:

Draft of the instrument should be critically discussed by experts both who are knowledgeable about the topic under study as well as those who are capable of detecting technical difficulties to develop content validity.

A pretest of an instrument is a trial run to determine, in so far as' possible,

its clarity, research adequacy and freedom from bias. Pretest should be administered to individuals who are similar in attributes to those who will participate in actual study.

A pretest does not obtain information on the reliability of the responses of t9-e questions asked.

Establishing the Reliability of the Instrument

Reliability coefficient is estimated statistically and is usually assessed by 1) examining the internal consistency. by test-retest method, split-half method or by Kudar-Richardson formula, and (2) repeated administration of questionnaire on two or more occasions.

d)     Translation of Tool (if required):

Translate the tool from English to any other language concerned. One of  the way adopted to establish reliability is to translate it back to English language to examine the correctness of first question.

e)      Coding'

Coding is an important part of questionnaire development. It helps in processing data. All items are stated in such a way that some classification of answers is possible, e.g. "Yes" is coded as [I] and 'No" as [2] and the respondent is asked to enter [I] or [2] for yes or no answer.

By coding responses may be conveniently punched into computer or tallied by hand.

f)       Plan for Scoring:

It is essential to plan the scoring technique in Qrder to examine the type of data and the possible statistical computation. Ultimately the choice of question type would depend largely up to the subject matter of the study, verbal ability of respondents and amount of time available

WRITING GOOD QUESTIONS

a)      Use the words that are simple, direct and familiar to all; select the words of questions according to your respondents' understanding.

b)     Question should be as clear and specific as possible.

c)      Define or qualify the term that can easily be misinterpreted.

d)     Avoid double barrelled questions

e)      Beware of double negatives. 

f)       Underline a word if you wish to indicate special emphasis

g)      . Avoid questions that are leading or suggest the answer that is expected

h)     Be sure that the alternatives are enough and appropriate for the intended respondent.

i)        Problem Words: Some words present problems because they are confusing; one of these is "you". For example, "How many patients did you care for last week?" Instead write "What was the nurse-patient ratio in medical ward on Monday last?”

j)       Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire/Interview Schedule.

·         Deals with matter that is significant to the topic under study.

·         Seeks information which cannot be obtained from other sources e.g. school reports.

·         Is as short as possible, i.e. only long enough to get essential data. A questionnaire should not take more than 20-25 minutes and an interview not more than one hour to complete.

·         Should be attractive in appearance neatly arranged clearly duplicated or printed.

·         Directions are clear, and complete, important terms are defined.' Each item deals with a single idea, all questions are worded simply and clearly.

·         Is objective, with no leading -suggestions as to the responses described.  

·         It is easy to tabulate and interpret. It is advisable to construct "dummy tables".

METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

Ø INTRODUCTION:

Data are facts which are observed and measurable phenomena. The purpose of gathering and summarizing data is to transform them into information in order to:

1.     Identify variable/facts

2.     Measure variable

3.     Describe behavior

4.     Obtain empirical evidence

Ø LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT/DATA:

Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to the variables. Ways to assign these numbers include counting, ranking and comparing objects or events. Measurements, as used in research implies qualification of information is the assigning of some type of number to the data and numbers are then become the means of computing the information.

The aim of measurement is to provide accurate and objective description of phenomena that you can communicate to others.

There are four types of data as discussed below:

1)    Nominal Data:

2)    Ordinal Data

3)    Interval Measurement

4)    Dichotomous Data

1)    Nominal Data:

Data are called Nominal level when data can be placed in two or more classes which are mutually exclusive or exhaustive. When you have nominal level data, you have categories with different “names” for different groups; e.g. Indian, American, African. The subject scale value on a nomian, variable simply indicates the group to which he belongs. Putting people into the following categories would be other examples of Nominal level Data:

1)    Boy-girl; 2) student and non-student; 3) Hindu-Muslim-Christian.

In tabular form:

Table : census Data on 678 Villagers Census Data Men Women 1991 308 370

2)    Ordinal Data:

Ordinal data are discrete or discontinuous consisting of categories of variable that are ranked, ordered or compared according to a predetermined standard clothing size, teaching ranks, contest winner, are all ordinal data. A ranking of patient behavior according to how often they occur during a given period is another example. Although there are no equal interval between points, rank orders do have a relative order between categories, like first, second, third ranks or ranked as “always” , “mostly” , “sometime” , “rarely” and “never”.

 The interval or ratio data can be converted to ordinal data according to     

  magnitude of each score, e.g, score, of 81 to 100 may be called ‘excellent ’

61 to 80 as ‘good’, 41 to 60 as ‘average’, 21 to 40 as ‘poor’ and below 21 as ‘very poor’. However, ordinal data cannot be converted to interval or ratio level data.

In tabular form, with the Abdellah and Levine’s attempt to create a graphic rating for assessing nursing care. The categories are ranked in order from “care of the highest quality” to “very poor care” with varying degree of service between.

Table: quality of care given to 100 patient
Care is of Highest	Very good care	Average care	Care is below average	Very poor care
2	23	47	18	10

                                                       I.            Ratio

                                                     II.            Interval Level Data

 Ratio and interval level are highest level of measurement. They indicate “how  much” or the quantity of a variable.

3)     Interval Measurement:

It is a scale based on equal unit of measurement indicating how much of a given attribute is present in the subject. It exhibit equal differences in amounts. Example: temperature limitation of this scale is: it fails to measure absolute magnitude. The scale does not have a true Zero. Continues variable yield interval measurement. Analytical possibilities are greater. The data can be meaningfully added, subtracted and averaged. I.e. if (a = b) and (b = c), then (a = c).

An interval scale is assumed as follows:

  a   b   c   d   e

  1   2   3   4   5

The interval from a to c = 3-1=2. The interval from c to d = 4-3=1.

We can add this (3-1) + (4-3) =2+1=3. Now note that the interval from a to d = 4-1 =3. Expressed in an equation (d-a) =(c-a)+(d-c).

The statistics applicable are:

Ratio measurement:

Ratio level is the highest level of measurement. They are distinguished from internal scales by virtue of having an absolute zero. Ratio scale provides information regarding: Rank Ordering, interval between object, Absolute zero.

Example: Many physical measures provide ratio scale data – height/weight, etc. since it has an absolute zero all arithmetic calculations are possible. Numbers on the scale indicate the actual amounts of the property being measured.

4)    Dichotomous Data:

-         Data that fall into only two categories are called dichotomous data.

-         Although these data ordinarily might be considered nominal level. (e.g. pass-fail, qualified-unqualified),they also can be treated as interval level in many statically tests because the variable either has an underlying continues characteristics such s pass-fail or is conceptually changed to represent the presence or absence of a characteristics.

Levels of data can be measured in various ways, e.g., multi-model measurement, occurs when several measures instead of just one are selected, especially when measures are indirect or complicated, such as growth, compliance. In these cases, indicators are used to measure the phenomena. For example, height, weight, head circumference and arm measure can be used as indicators of growth.

Ø SOURCES OF DATA

There are main three sources of data:

1)    Documentary Sources

Those information which are contained in the published and unpublished documents, reports, statistics, manuscripts, letters, diaries and so on, are grouped under two broad categories, i.e, primary sources and secondary, sources.

·        Primary sources provide data which are gathered at first hand where the responsibility and promulgation remain under the same authority that originally gathered by observation, personal interview, conference, correspondence, questionnaire and other devices.

·        Secondary sources provide data that have been transcribed or complied from original sources; here the promulgating authority is different from the one which controlled the collection of data at first hand, e.g. the Census of India is generally cited as the primary source whereas the Health Statistics on India based on census of India are examples of the Secondary Source. Note that promulgation means publication, dissemination, making known to public or exposing to public.

2)    Field Sources:

 Include living persons have the knowledge about or have been in intimate contact with social conditions and changes over a considerable time. These people are in a position to describe not only the existing state of affairs (e.g. patient tells about his condition) but also the observable trends (e.g. see how patient tells about his conditions) and significant milestones in the society. Field sources also include conditions, environment and events that are observable and measurable, such as sanitary conditions, humidity. Most survey studies and all experimental studies use field sources for collection.

3)    Historical Sources:

Historical data are a combination of documentary and field sources. These consist of documents and various historical sources to which the historian himself has access. These may include: material of cultural history and analytical history, personal sources of authentic observers and witness, and these may consist of oral, written evidences, artifacts, etc. An example is M.Phil. thesis under. Delhi University, 1989 on the development of collegiate programme in nursing un Assam contains Government documents, university minutes, TNAI report, interview with first Principal, Health Secretary, etc. which indicate “who proposed”, “who supported” and “who assisted” in the development of the institution.

Ø METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION:

Techniques and Tools of Data Collection
TECHNIQUE	TOOLS
(METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA) 1)    Questioning ·        Unstructured ·        Structured ·        Mixed 2)    Observation ·        Non-participant ·        Participant ·        No concealment ·        Concealment 3)    Measurement ·        Physiological Measurement ·        Psychological Measurements ·        Sociological Measurements ·        Health status	Questionnaire, opinionnaire Interview Schedule -         Log and file notes, anecdotes -         Observation checklist (structured, unstructured) -         Rating scales -         Machineries i.e. video tape/ films, closed circuit T.V., etc. Ø Physical measurements- temp. Ø Chemical measurement-sugar Ø Microbiological measurement-bacterial count Ø Test  on Psychomotor skill Ø Personality test Ø Intelligent test Ø Socio-economic status Ø Subjective Wellbeing Inventory Measurement

1)    Questioning and Interview Schedule:

·        Meaning: The questioning is a technique of data collection where the sources of data are the subject himself/herself. Here, the data are collected through self reporting which requires some form of questioning to obtain needed information. Questioning the use of a formal instrument, which are: Interview Schedule, Questionnaire or Opinionnaire.

·        Interview schedule: is an oral questionnaire. Here the researcher (interviewer) orally asks questions to the participant (interviewee) of the study, either in face to face meeting or over the telephone or video recording. Interviewing is one of the questioning. Interview schedule is a questionnaire an interview guide (less structured) provides ideas but allows the interviewer a freedom to pursue topics in depth.

Advantages:

• Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information.
• Good response rate.
• Completed and immediate.
• Possible in-depth questions.
• Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem.
• Can investigate motives and feelings.
• Can use recording equipment.
• Characteristics of respondent assessed – tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation, etc.
• Can use props.
• If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach.
• Used to pilot other methods.

Disadvantages:

• Need to set up interviews.
• Time consuming.
• Geographic limitations.
• Can be expensive.
• Normally need a set of questions.
• Respondent bias – tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end interview quickly.
• Embarrassment possible if personal questions.
• Transcription and analysis can present problems – subjectivity.
• If many interviewers, training required.

·        Questionnaire: comprises a series of questions prepared by the researcher that are answered and filled in by the entire respondent. This is usually self-administered. The opinionnaire is a type of questionnaire which comprises of a series of questions that may refer to matters of opinions to be answered by the respondents.

Advantages:

• Can be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for interviewing or a telephone survey.
• Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed.
• Can cover a large number of people or organisations.
• Wide geographic coverage.
• Relatively cheap.
• No prior arrangements are needed.
• Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent.
• Respondent can consider responses.
• Possible anonymity of respondent.
• No interviewer bias.

Disadvantages:

• Design problems.
• Questions have to be relatively simple.
• Historically low response rate (although inducements may help).
• Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned.
• Require a return deadline.
• Several reminders may be required.
• Assumes no literacy problems.
• No control over who completes it.
• Not possible to give assistance if required.
• Problems with incomplete questionnaires.
• Replies not spontaneous and independent of each other.
• Respondent can read all questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or not. For example, perhaps because it is too long, too complex, uninteresting, or too personal.

The interview schedule or the questionnaire the researcher uses different forms of questions, such as closed-ended (or fixed alternative), open-ended or partially close-ended questions.

Example: close- ended

Example:1 1)    Have you ever taken a course in statistics? (  ) yes (  ) No

Example: open-ended

Example:2 1)    Why did you choose to take your graduate work at this university? 2)    In your opinion what are the causes for cancer?

Example: partially closes-ended Questions

Example:3 For what reasons did you retire before the age of 58? 1)    Health reasons 2)    Desire for more free time 3)    Was assured of more than adequate income 4)    List as many other reasons as you can think of

2)    Observation Technique:

What does observation technique mean: observation is one of the basic and oldest research methods if gather data. Observation stops being a normal part of daily life and becomes a research method if it is systematically planned and recorded and when both observation and recording are checked for their validity and reliability. It is a technique for collecting the data through occurrences that can be observed through senses with or without mechanical devices.

Observation is a two part process:

1)    Someone is observing-observer

2)    There is something to observe-the observed

In observation there are four questions that confront the researcher. These are:

a)     What should be observed?

b)    How should observation be recorded?

c)     What procedure should be used try to assure the accuracy of observation?

d)    What relationship should exist between the observer and the observed, and how can such relationship be established?

What is to be observed: phenomena that can be observed. There are various phenomena that can be observed in nursing research. For example:

·        Characteristics and conditions of individuals such as physiological conditions.

·        Verbal communication behavior, such as linguistic behavior, people’s conversation.

·        Non-verbal communication behavior, such as facial expression, touch, posture, body movements.

·        Activities, for example actions that serves as an index of health status, performance activity of nurses, performance of procedure.

·        Environment characteristics, such as noise levels, cleanliness that have profound effect on health or individual’s behavior.

   

Types of Observation:

Types of observation relate to the observer-observer relationship. It has been described as “concealment and participant”, “concealment and non-participant”, “no-concealment and participant” as diagrammatically shown in figure:

                                                   No Concealment and Participant                                                                                  

 

Concealment and                                                                           observer

 Non-participant                                                                              non-concealment

Observer behind                                                                              & non participant

Screen                                                                                                (no screen)

                                                         Observer

                                               Concealment and participant

 “non-concealment” and “Concealment ” refer to whether the observer makes his intention known to the persons observed or not, whereas “participants and “non-participant” refer to the role of observer; that is weather the observer is a part of the social setting or makes the observation from periphery of a social setting.

The instrument used for the technique can be unstructured e.g. logs and field notes, Anecdotes or can be structured e.g. “Logs and Field Notes”: Logs is a record of events and conversations and usually is maintained on a daily basis by field worker.

Instruments/ Tools:

·        “Field notes” may include daily log but tend to be much broader, more analytic, and include more interpretation than more listing of occurrences.

·        “Anecdotes”: Anecdotes focus on behavior of particular interest. Anecdote typically selects specific kind of events behaviors for observation beforehand. The observer objectively and accurately records the observation.

·        “Checklist”: It is a tool used for structured observation where phenomena are recorded be putting a tally against a particular behavior, event or characteristics depending upon its presence or absence.

When developing a checklist researcher must list all expected behaviors related to the variable being measured. So that all relevant behaviors in the subject will correctly be identified.

3)    Measurement:

The third method of data collection is measurement where standardized instrument are used to measure variables. For example, scientific instruments such as thermometer, barometer, weighing scale are instrument for physical measures of temperature, pressure and weight respectively. Precision measure depends on refinement of the instrument. A standard instrument should be used and preferably the same instrument should be used: it is for measuring all subjects.

Types of measurement:

The types can be classified under three categories:

v Physiological measurement

v Psychological measurement

v Sociological measurement

v  

Physiological measurement:

It can be classified as In Vivo and In Vitro. In Vivo includes measurements of those which are performed directly within or living organisms themselves; such as blood flow determination through radiography, IVP, cholecystography.

An In Vitro measurement by contrast is performed outside the organism’s body, such as blood glucose, blood urea, serum Na+, K+.

Physiological measurement can also be classified as listed below:

v Physical measurement – Temperature, volume, pressure, electrical measures.

v Chemical measurements – hormones levels, sugar, urea, Hb%, potassium level, etc.

v Microbiological measurement – bacterial counts and identification.

v Anatomical and Cytological measurement – X-rays, tissue biopsies, tomography, CAT scan, etc.

Psychological measurement:-

Mainly makes use of psychological tests and inventories. Psychological test is an instrument designed to measure only a certain aspect of human behavior, quantified by numerical scores. These tools attempt to quantify the feelings, attitudes, opinion of individuals, etc., for example, measurement of attitude, personality, intelligence, and achievements.

Sociological Measurement:-

Attempts to measurement group or individuals in relation to a social set up. For example, social Distance Scale which attempts to measure to what degree an individual or group or Individuals is accepted or rejected by another individual or group. The first “feeling” reactions or needs are checked without rationalizing. Socio-economic Status Scale such as SES Scale (Urban) B. Kuppuswamy, are the few examples.

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