METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
Ø INTRODUCTION:
Data are facts which are observed and measurable phenomena.
The purpose of gathering and summarizing data is to transform them into
information in order to:
1. Identify variable/facts
2. Measure variable
3. Describe behavior
4. Obtain empirical evidence
Ø LEVELS
OF MEASUREMENT/DATA:
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to the
variables. Ways to assign these numbers include counting, ranking and comparing
objects or events. Measurements, as used in research implies qualification of
information is the assigning of some type of number to the data and numbers are
then become the means of computing the information.
The aim of measurement is to provide accurate and objective
description of phenomena that you can communicate to others.
There are four types of data as discussed below:
1) Nominal Data:
2) Ordinal Data
3) Interval Measurement
4) Dichotomous Data
1) Nominal Data:
Data are called Nominal level when data can be placed in two
or more classes which are mutually exclusive or exhaustive. When you have
nominal level data, you have categories with different “names” for different
groups; e.g. Indian, American, African. The subject scale value on a nomian,
variable simply indicates the group to which he belongs. Putting people into the
following categories would be other examples of Nominal level Data:
1) Boy-girl; 2) student and non-student;
3) Hindu-Muslim-Christian.
In tabular form:
|
Table
: census Data on 678 Villagers
|
2)
Ordinal Data:
Ordinal data
are discrete or discontinuous consisting of categories of variable that are
ranked, ordered or compared according to a predetermined standard clothing
size, teaching ranks, contest winner, are all ordinal data. A ranking of
patient behavior according to how often they occur during a given period is
another example. Although there are no equal interval between points, rank
orders do have a relative order between categories, like first, second, third
ranks or ranked as “always” , “mostly” , “sometime” , “rarely” and
“never”.
The interval or ratio data can be converted to
ordinal data according to
magnitude of each score, e.g, score, of 81 to
100 may be called ‘excellent ’
61 to 80 as
‘good’, 41 to 60 as ‘average’, 21 to 40 as ‘poor’ and below
21 as ‘very poor’. However, ordinal
data cannot be converted to interval or ratio level data.
In tabular
form, with the Abdellah and Levine’s attempt to create a graphic rating for
assessing nursing care. The categories are ranked in order from “care of the highest quality” to “very poor care” with varying degree of
service between.
|
Table: quality of care given to 100 patient
|
||||
|
Care is of Highest
|
Very good
care
|
Average care
|
Care is below average
|
Very poor care
|
|
2
|
23
|
47
|
18
|
10
|
I.
Ratio
II.
Interval
Level Data
Ratio and interval level are highest level of
measurement. They indicate “how much” or
the quantity of a variable.
3)
Interval Measurement:
It is a
scale based on equal unit of measurement indicating how much of a given
attribute is present in the subject. It exhibit equal differences in amounts. Example:
temperature limitation of this scale is: it fails to measure absolute
magnitude. The scale does not have a true Zero. Continues variable yield
interval measurement. Analytical possibilities are greater. The data can be
meaningfully added, subtracted and averaged. I.e. if (a = b) and (b = c), then
(a = c).
An interval
scale is assumed as follows:
a
b c d e
1
2 3 4 5
The
interval from a to c = 3-1=2. The interval from c to d = 4-3=1.
We can add
this (3-1) + (4-3) =2+1=3. Now note that the interval from a to d = 4-1 =3.
Expressed in an equation (d-a) =(c-a)+(d-c).
The
statistics applicable are:
Ratio
measurement:
Ratio level
is the highest level of measurement. They are distinguished from internal
scales by virtue of having an absolute zero. Ratio scale provides information regarding:
Rank Ordering, interval between object, Absolute zero.
|
Example:
Many
physical measures provide ratio scale data – height/weight, etc. since it has
an absolute zero all arithmetic calculations are possible. Numbers on the
scale indicate the actual amounts of the property being measured.
|
4)
Dichotomous Data:
-
Data
that fall into only two categories are called dichotomous data.
-
Although
these data ordinarily might be considered nominal level. (e.g. pass-fail,
qualified-unqualified),they also can be treated as interval level in many statically
tests because the variable either has an underlying continues characteristics
such s pass-fail or is conceptually changed to represent the presence or
absence of a characteristics.
Levels of data can be measured in
various ways, e.g., multi-model
measurement, occurs when several measures instead of just one are selected,
especially when measures are indirect or complicated, such as growth,
compliance. In these cases, indicators are used to measure the phenomena. For
example, height, weight, head circumference and arm measure can be used as
indicators of growth.
Ø SOURCES
OF DATA
There
are main three sources of data:
1)
Documentary Sources
Those information which are contained
in the published and unpublished documents, reports, statistics, manuscripts,
letters, diaries and so on, are grouped under two broad categories, i.e,
primary sources and secondary, sources.
·
Primary
sources provide data which are gathered at first hand where the responsibility
and promulgation remain under the same authority that originally gathered by
observation, personal interview, conference, correspondence, questionnaire and
other devices.
·
Secondary
sources provide data that have been transcribed or complied from original
sources; here the promulgating authority is different from the one which
controlled the collection of data at first hand, e.g. the Census of India is
generally cited as the primary source whereas the Health Statistics on India based on census of India
2)
Field Sources:
Include living persons have the knowledge
about or have been in intimate contact with social conditions and changes over
a considerable time. These people are in a position to describe not only the
existing state of affairs (e.g. patient tells about his condition) but also the
observable trends (e.g. see how patient tells about his conditions) and
significant milestones in the society. Field sources also include conditions,
environment and events that are observable and measurable, such as sanitary
conditions, humidity. Most survey studies and all experimental studies use
field sources for collection.
3)
Historical Sources:
Historical
data are a combination of documentary and field sources. These consist of
documents and various historical sources to which the historian himself has
access. These may include: material of cultural history and analytical history,
personal sources of authentic observers and witness, and these may consist of
oral, written evidences, artifacts, etc. An example is M.Phil. thesis under.
Delhi University, 1989 on the development of collegiate programme in nursing un
Assam contains Government documents, university minutes, TNAI report, interview
with first Principal, Health Secretary, etc. which indicate “who proposed”,
“who supported” and “who assisted” in the development of the institution.
Ø METHOD
OF DATA COLLECTION:
|
Techniques
and Tools of Data Collection
|
|
|
TECHNIQUE
|
TOOLS
|
|
(METHOD OF
COLLECTING DATA)
1) Questioning
·
Unstructured
·
Structured
·
Mixed
2) Observation
·
Non-participant
·
Participant
·
No concealment
·
Concealment
3) Measurement
·
Physiological
Measurement
·
Psychological
Measurements
·
Sociological
Measurements
·
Health status
|
Questionnaire,
opinionnaire
Interview Schedule
-
Log and file
notes, anecdotes
-
Observation
checklist (structured, unstructured)
-
Rating scales
-
Machineries
i.e. video tape/ films, closed circuit T.V., etc.
Ø Physical measurements- temp.
Ø Chemical measurement-sugar
Ø Microbiological measurement-bacterial count
Ø Test on
Psychomotor skill
Ø Personality test
Ø Intelligent test
Ø Socio-economic status
Ø Subjective Wellbeing Inventory Measurement
|
1)
Questioning and Interview Schedule:
·
Meaning: The
questioning is a technique of data collection where the sources of data are the
subject himself/herself. Here, the data are collected through self reporting
which requires some form of questioning to obtain needed information.
Questioning the use of a formal instrument, which are: Interview Schedule,
Questionnaire or Opinionnaire.
·
Interview schedule: is an oral questionnaire. Here the researcher (interviewer) orally
asks questions to the participant (interviewee) of the study, either in face to
face meeting or over the telephone or video recording. Interviewing is one of
the questioning. Interview schedule is a questionnaire an interview guide (less
structured) provides ideas but allows the interviewer a freedom to pursue
topics in depth.
Advantages:
- Serious
approach by respondent resulting in accurate information.
- Good
response rate.
- Completed
and immediate.
- Possible
in-depth questions.
- Interviewer
in control and can give help if there is a problem.
- Can
investigate motives and feelings.
- Can
use recording equipment.
- Characteristics
of respondent assessed – tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation,
etc.
- Can
use props.
- If
one interviewer used, uniformity of approach.
- Used
to pilot other methods.
Disadvantages:
- Need
to set up interviews.
- Time
consuming.
- Geographic
limitations.
- Can
be expensive.
- Normally
need a set of questions.
- Respondent
bias – tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end
interview quickly.
- Embarrassment
possible if personal questions.
- Transcription
and analysis can present problems – subjectivity.
- If
many interviewers, training required.
·
Questionnaire:
comprises a series of questions prepared by the researcher that are answered
and filled in by the entire respondent. This is usually self-administered. The
opinionnaire is a type of questionnaire which comprises of a series of
questions that may refer to matters of opinions to be answered by the
respondents.
Advantages:
- Can
be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for interviewing or a
telephone survey.
- Can
be posted, e-mailed or faxed.
- Can
cover a large number of people or organisations.
- Wide
geographic coverage.
- Relatively
cheap.
- No
prior arrangements are needed.
- Avoids
embarrassment on the part of the respondent.
- Respondent
can consider responses.
- Possible
anonymity of respondent.
- No
interviewer bias.
Disadvantages:
- Design
problems.
- Questions
have to be relatively simple.
- Historically
low response rate (although inducements may help).
- Time
delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned.
- Require
a return deadline.
- Several
reminders may be required.
- Assumes
no literacy problems.
- No
control over who completes it.
- Not
possible to give assistance if required.
- Problems
with incomplete questionnaires.
- Replies
not spontaneous and independent of each other.
- Respondent
can read all questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or
not. For example, perhaps because it is too long, too complex,
uninteresting, or too personal.
The interview schedule or the questionnaire the
researcher uses different forms of questions, such as closed-ended (or fixed
alternative), open-ended or partially close-ended questions.
Example: close- ended
|
Example:1
1) Have you ever taken a course in statistics?
( ) yes
( ) No
|
Example: open-ended
|
Example:2
1) Why did you choose to take your graduate work at
this university?
2) In your opinion what are the causes for cancer?
|
Example: partially closes-ended Questions
|
Example:3
For what reasons
did you retire before the age of 58?
1) Health reasons
2) Desire for more free time
3) Was assured of more than adequate income
4) List as many other reasons as you can think of
|
2)
Observation Technique:
What does observation technique mean: observation is
one of the basic and oldest research methods if gather data. Observation stops
being a normal part of daily life and becomes a research method if it is
systematically planned and recorded and when both observation and recording are
checked for their validity and reliability. It is a technique for collecting
the data through occurrences that can be observed through senses with or
without mechanical devices.
Observation
is a two part process:
1) Someone is observing-observer
2) There is something to observe-the observed
In observation there are four questions that confront
the researcher. These are:
a) What should be observed?
b) How should observation be recorded?
c) What procedure should be used try to assure the
accuracy of observation?
d) What relationship should exist between the observer
and the observed, and how can such relationship be established?
What is to be
observed: phenomena that can be observed. There are various phenomena that can
be observed in nursing research. For example:
·
Characteristics
and conditions of individuals such as physiological conditions.
·
Verbal
communication behavior, such as linguistic behavior, people’s conversation.
·
Non-verbal
communication behavior, such as facial expression, touch, posture, body
movements.
·
Activities, for
example actions that serves as an index of health status, performance activity
of nurses, performance of procedure.
·
Environment
characteristics, such as noise levels, cleanliness that have profound effect on
health or individual’s behavior.
Types of Observation:
Types of observation relate to the observer-observer
relationship. It has been described as “concealment and participant”,
“concealment and non-participant”, “no-concealment and participant” as
diagrammatically shown in figure:
No Concealment and Participant
 |
|||||
 |
|||||
 |
|||||
Concealment
and
observer
Non-participant non-concealment
Observer
behind
& non participant
Screen
(no
screen)
Observer
Concealment
and participant
“non-concealment”
and “Concealment ” refer to whether the observer makes his intention known to
the persons observed or not, whereas “participants and “non-participant” refer
to the role of observer; that is weather the observer is a part of the social
setting or makes the observation from periphery of a social setting.
The instrument used for the technique can be
unstructured e.g. logs and field notes, Anecdotes or can be structured e.g.
“Logs and Field Notes”: Logs is a record of events and conversations and
usually is maintained on a daily basis by field worker.
Instruments/ Tools:
·
“Field notes” may
include daily log but tend to be much broader, more analytic, and include more
interpretation than more listing of occurrences.
·
“Anecdotes”:
Anecdotes focus on behavior of particular interest. Anecdote typically selects
specific kind of events behaviors for observation beforehand. The observer
objectively and accurately records the observation.
·
“Checklist”: It
is a tool used for structured observation where phenomena are recorded be
putting a tally against a particular behavior, event or characteristics
depending upon its presence or absence.
When developing a
checklist researcher must list all expected behaviors related to the variable
being measured. So that all relevant behaviors in the subject will correctly be
identified.
3)
Measurement:
The third method of data collection is measurement
where standardized instrument are used to measure variables. For example,
scientific instruments such as thermometer, barometer, weighing scale are instrument
for physical measures of temperature, pressure and weight respectively.
Precision measure depends on refinement of the instrument. A standard
instrument should be used and preferably the same instrument should be used: it
is for measuring all subjects.
Types of measurement:
The types can be classified under three categories:
v Physiological measurement
v Psychological measurement
v Sociological measurement
v
Physiological measurement:
It can be classified
as In Vivo and In Vitro. In Vivo includes measurements of those which are
performed directly within or living organisms themselves; such as blood flow
determination through radiography, IVP, cholecystography.
An In Vitro
measurement by contrast is performed outside the organism’s body, such as blood
glucose, blood urea, serum Na+, K+.
Physiological
measurement can also be classified as listed below:
v Physical measurement – Temperature, volume, pressure,
electrical measures.
v Chemical measurements – hormones levels, sugar, urea,
Hb%, potassium level, etc.
v Microbiological measurement – bacterial counts and
identification.
v Anatomical and Cytological measurement – X-rays,
tissue biopsies, tomography, CAT scan, etc.
Psychological measurement:-
Mainly makes use of
psychological tests and inventories. Psychological test is an instrument
designed to measure only a certain aspect of human behavior, quantified by
numerical scores. These tools attempt to quantify the feelings, attitudes,
opinion of individuals, etc., for example, measurement of attitude,
personality, intelligence, and achievements.
Sociological Measurement:-
Attempts to
measurement group or individuals in relation to a social set up. For example,
social Distance Scale which attempts to measure to what degree an individual or
group or Individuals is accepted or rejected by another individual or group.
The first “feeling” reactions or needs are checked without rationalizing.
Socio-economic Status Scale such as SES Scale (Urban) B. Kuppuswamy, are the
few examples.
.
Good content
ReplyDelete